The Knowledge Management Model

Introduction :

The major KM activities described in the KM cycle in the previous material must have a conceptual framework to operate within, otherwise the activities will not be coordinated and will not produce the expected KM benefit.

Davenport and Prusak (1998) refer to the distinctions among data, information, and knowledge as operational and argue that we can transform information into knowledge by means of comparison, consequences, connections and conversation. 

The Nonaka and Takeuchi Knowledge Spiral Model (SECI Model)

Background

Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) studied how Japanese companies were successful in achieving creativity and innovation.

The tacit/explicit spectrum of knowledge forms (the epistemological dimension) and the individual/group/organizational) or three-tier model of knowledge and diffusion (the ontological dimension) are both needed in order to create knowledge and produce innovation. 

According to Takeuchi and Nonaka, there are four modes of knowledge conversion :

1. From tacit knowledge to tacit knowledge: the process of socialization.

2. From tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge: the process of externalization.

3. From explicit knowledge to explicit knowledge: the process of combination.

4. From explicit knowledge to tacit knowledge: the process of internalization.

•Socialization (tacit-to-tacit) consists of the sharing of knowledge in face-to-face natural, and typically social interactions.

•Socialization is among the easiest forms of exchanging knowledge, because it is what we do instinctively when we gather at the coffee machine or meeting.

•The greatest advantage of socialization is also its greatest drawback: because knowledge remains tacit, it is rarely captured, noted, or written down anywhere. 

•Externalization (tacit-to-explicit) is a process that gives a visible form to tacit knowledge and converts it to explicit knowledge.

•Knowledge that was previously tacit can somehow be written down, recorded, drawn, or made tangible or concrete in some manner.

•Once externalized, knowledge is now tangible and permanent. It can be shared more easily with others and leveraged throughout the organization.

•Combination (explicit-to-explicit) is the process of recombining discrete piece of explicit knowledge into a new form.

•Internalization (explicit-to-tacit) occurs through the diffusion and embedding of newly acquired behavior and newly understood or revised mental models.

•Internalization is very strongly linked to “learning by doing.”

•Once new knowledge has been internalized, it is then used by employees who broaden it, extend it and reframe it within their own existing tacit knowledge bases.

Inukshuk KM Model

•The inukshuk KM model (Girard, 2005) was developed to help Canadian government departments to better manage their knowledge.
•This model was developed by both reviewing existing major models to extract five key enablers (technology, leadership, culture, measurement, and process) and by conducting quantitative research to validate these enablers. 

The European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) KM Model

•The EFQM model (Bhatt 2000, 2001, 2002) looks at the way in which knowledge management is used to attain the goals of an organization.

•This model is based on traditional models of quality and excellence, so there are very strong links between KM processes and expected organizational results. 

The Wiig Model for Building and Using Knowledge

Wiig (1993) approached his KM model with the following principle: in order for knowledge to be useful and valuable, it must be organized.

Some useful dimensions to consider in Wiig’s KM model include:

     1. Completeness
     2. Connectedness
     3. Congruency
     4. Perspective and purpose

Wiig’s approach can be seen as a further refinement of the fourth Nonaka and Takeuching quadrant of internalization. 

Wiig (1993) also defines three forms of knowledge:

1.Public knowledge is explicit, taught and routinely shared knowledge that is generally available in the public domain (e.g., a published book or information on a web site)

2.Shared expertise is proprietary knowledge assets that are exclusively held by knowledge workers and shared in their work or embedded in technology.

3.Personal knowledge is typically more tacit than explicit knowledge, and is used unconsciously in work, play and daily life 

In addition to the three major forms of knowledge, Wiig (1993) also defines four types of knowledge:

     1.Factual knowledge deals with data and causal chains, measurements, readings.2.Conceptual knowledge deals with systems, concepts and perspectives.3.Expectational knowledge concerns judgments, hypotheses, and expectations held by knowers.4.Methodological knowledge deals with reasoning, strategies, decision-making methods and other techniques.